Difference between revisions of "Ancient Rome"

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'''Ancient Rome''' was a [[civilization]] that existed in [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Middle East]] between [[753 BC]] and its downfall in [[476|AD 476]]. For several centuries, the Romans controlled the whole of Western Europe, as well as the entire area surrounding the [[Mediterranean]] Sea and some of the area surrounding the [[Black Sea]].
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[[Image:Forum Romanum panorama 2.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The [[Roman Forum]] was the central area around which ancient Rome developed.]]
  
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[[Image:Roman_Empire_Map.png|thumb|320px|right|The Roman Empire during the reign of [[Trajan]]]]
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'''Ancient Rome''' was a [[civilization]] that grew out of the [[city-state]] of [[Rome]], founded on the [[Italian peninsula]] in the [[8th century BCE]]. During its twelve-century existence, the Roman civilization shifted from a [[monarchy]] to an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] to a vast [[empire]]. It came to dominate [[Western Europe]] and the entire area surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]] through [[conquest]] and [[assimilation]], but eventually succumbed to barbarian invasions in the [[5th century]], marking the [[decline of the Roman Empire]] and the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]].
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The Roman civilization is often grouped into "[[classical antiquity]]" with [[ancient Greece]], a civilization that inspired much of the [[culture of ancient Rome]]. Ancient Rome contributed heavily to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, and language in the [[Western world]], and its [[history of Rome|history]] continues to have a major influence on the world today.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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''Main Article '''[[History of Rome]]''' and '''[[Timeline of ancient Rome]]'''''
  
 
===Monarchy===
 
===Monarchy===
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{{main|Roman Kingdom}}
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[[Image:She-wolf suckles Romulus and Remus.jpg|thumb|right|300px|According to legend, [[founding of Rome|Rome was founded]] in [[750s BC|753 BC]] by [[Romulus and Remus]], who were raised by a she-wolf.]]
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[[Image:Lupaegemelli.jpg|framed|right|The female wolf, feeding the baby twins [[Romulus and Remus]]]]
 
  
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The city of [[Rome]] grew from settlements on and around the [[Palatine Hill]], approximately eighteen [[mile]]s from the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] on the river [[Tiber]]. At this location the Tiber has an island where the river can be forded. Because of the river and the ford, Rome was at a crossroads of traffic and trade.
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''Main Article '''[[Roman Kingdom]]'''''
  
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In Roman legend, [[Rome]] was founded by [[Romulus]] on [[21 April]] [[753 BC]]. Romulus, whose name is said to have inspired Rome's name, was the first of seven [[Roman Kingdom|Kings of Rome]], the last of whom, [[Tarquin the Proud]], was deposed in [[510 BC]] or [[509 BC]] when the [[Roman Republic]] was established. The mythical or semi-mythical kings are (in chronological order): [[Romulus]], [[Numa Pompilius]] (Good King Numa), [[Tullus Hostilius]], [[Ancus Marcius]], [[Tarquinius Priscus]], [[Servius Tullius]], and [[Tarquinius Superbus]] (Tarquin the Proud).
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The city of [[Rome]] grew from settlements around a ford on the river [[Tiber]], a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the [[9th century BC]] by members of two central Italian tribes, the [[Latins]] and the [[Sabine]]s, on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine]] and [[Quirinal Hill|Quirinal]] Hills. The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], who had previously settled to the north in [[Etruria]], seem to have established political control in the region by the late [[7th century BC]]. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late [[6th century BC]], and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.
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In Roman legend, Rome was [[founding of Rome|founded]] on [[April 21]], [[750s BC|753 BC]] by twins descendents of the [[Troy|Trojan]] prince [[Aeneas]], [[Romulus and Remus]]. Romulus, whose name inspired the name ''Rome'', killed Remus in a quarrel over where their new city would be located, and became the first of seven [[Roman Kingdom|Kings of Rome]].{{ref|Livy1}}
  
 
===Republic===
 
===Republic===
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{{Main|Roman Republic}}
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[[Image:Marius Carthage.jpg|frame|left|[[Marius]], a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the [[Military history of the Roman Empire|Roman military]].]]
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[[Image:Map of Republican Rome by William R Shepherd (died 1934) edited.jpg|thumb|200px|A map of Republican Rome.]]
 
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The Roman Republic was established around [[509 BC]], according to later writers such as [[Livy]], when the king was driven out, and a system based on annually elected [[magistratus|magistrates]] was established in its place. The most important were the two [[consul]]s, who between them exercised executive authority, but had to contend with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], which grew in size and power with the establishment of the Republic. The magistracies were originally restricted to [[patrician]]s but were later opened to [[plebeian]]s.
 
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The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, mostly related [[Italic]] tribes (of [[Indo-European]] stock) such as the [[Samnites]] and [[Sabine]]s, but also the [[Etruscans]]. The last threat to Roman [[hegemony]] in Italy came when [[Tarentum]], a major [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colony, enlisted the aid of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] in [[282 BC]].
 
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In the latter half of the [[3rd century BC]], Rome clashed with [[Carthage]] in the first two [[Punic wars]], conquering [[Sicily]] and [[Iberia]]. After defeating [[Macedonia]] and the [[Seleucids]] in the [[2nd century BC]], the Romans became the undisputed masters of the [[Mediterranean]].
 
  
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Internal strife now became the greatest threat to the Republic. The Senate, jealous of its own power, repeatedly blocked important land reforms. An unintended consequence of [[Gaius Marius]]'s military reforms was that soldiers often had more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general, such as Marius or his rival [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], were able to hold the city and Senate to ransom.
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The [[Roman Republic]] was established around [[510 BC]], according to later writers such as [[Livy]], when the last of the seven king of Rome, [[Lucius Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquin the Proud]], was deposed, and a system based on annually-elected [[magistratus|magistrates]] was established. The most important magistrates were the two [[consul]]s, who together exercised executive authority, but had to contend with the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], which grew in size and power with the establishment of the Republic. The magistracies were originally restricted to the elite [[patrician]]s, but were later opened to common people, or [[plebs]].{{ref|Livy2}}
  
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In the mid-[[1st century BC]] three men, [[Julius Caesar]], [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]], and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], took virtual control of the republic through a secret pact known as the [[First Triumvirate]]. Caesar was able to reconcile the rivals Pompey and Crassus, both extremely rich men with distinguished military and senatorial careers, and acted in both their interests when elected consul, before using his [[promagistrate|proconsular]] appointment as governor of Gaul to gain a military reputation himself.  
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The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman [[hegemony]] in Italy came when [[Taranto|Tarentum]], a major [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colony, enlisted the aid of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] in [[282 BC]], but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, and established stable control over the region.{{ref|Tuomisto1}} In the second half of the [[3rd century BC]], Rome clashed with [[Carthage]] in the first two [[Punic wars]]. These wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests, of [[Sicily]] and [[Hispania]], and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power. After defeating the [[Macedon]]ian and [[Seleucid Empire]]s in the [[2nd century BC]], the Romans became the masters of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{ref|Bagnall}}
  
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After Crassus's death and the collapse of the Triumvirate, a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious and was made [[Roman dictator|dictator]] for life after refusing the title of king. He took on too much power too soon for some of the senators, however, and was murdered in a plot organised by [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]] on the [[Ides of March]] [[44 BC]].  
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But foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense, but soldiers, mostly small farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the increased reliance on foreign [[slavery in antiquity|slaves]] reduced the availablility of paid work. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important land reforms. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate by violence. The denial of [[Roman citizen|Roman citizenship]] to allied Italian cities led to the [[Social War]] of [[91 BC|91]]-[[88 BC]]. The military reforms of [[Marius]] resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general could hold the city and Senate ransom. This culminated in [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]]'s brutal [[Roman dictator|dictatorship]] of [[81 BC|81]]-[[79 BC]]. {{ref|Scullard1}}
  
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A [[Second Triumvirate]], consisting of Caesar's designated heir [[Octavian]] and his former supporters [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], took power, but its members soon descended into a struggle for dominance. In the last republican power struggle, Octavian defeated Antony at the [[Battle of Actium]] in [[31 BC]] and annexed the territories of [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], Antony's Egyptian (and, in Rome, despised) partner. Octavian retained Egypt as a virtual crown dominion, guaranteeing an income to buy the favour of the capital's residents. He now assumed almost absolute power as military ''[[Imperator]]'', the common people's sole [[tribune]], and supreme authority over the Roman territories, and took the name [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]]. These constitutional settlements ([[27 BC]] and [[23 BC]]) transformed Rome from a Republic to an Empire. His designated successor, [[Tiberius]], took power without any bloodshed (or even much resistance), thus completing Augustus's project.
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In the mid-[[1st century BC]], three men, [[Julius Caesar]], [[Pompey]], and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]], formed a secret pact—the [[First Triumvirate]]—to control the Republic. After Caesar's [[Gallic Wars|conquest of Gaul]], a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to [[Caesar's civil war|civil war]], with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made [[Roman dictator|dictator]] for life.{{ref|meier}} In [[42 BC]], Caesar was assassinated by senators fearing that Caesar sought to restore the monarchy, and a [[Second Triumvirate]], consisting of Caesar's designated heir, [[Augustus]], and his former supporters, [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Lepidus]], took power. However, this alliance too soon descended into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was exiled, and when Augustus defeated Antony and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] of [[Egypt]] at the [[Battle of Actium]] in [[31 BC]], he became the undisputed ruler of Rome. {{Ref|Scullard2}}
  
 
===Empire===
 
===Empire===
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{{Main|Roman Empire}}
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[[Image:Roman_Empire_Map.png|thumb|right|350px|The [[Roman Empire]] reached its greatest extent under [[Trajan]].]]
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{{expert}}
 
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[[Image:Roman Empire.png|thumb|right|250px|The extent of the Roman Empire in <b><font color="red">[[133 BC]]</font></b>, in <b><font color="orange">[[44 BC]]</font></b>, in <b><span style="background-color: silver"><font color="yellow">[[14|AD 14]]</font></span></b>, and in <b><font color="green">[[117|AD 117]]</font></b>.]]
 
  
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The Roman Empire was created after Augustus's Princepate. The Emperor Tiberius was a corrupt and ruthless man. He killed many important Romans who he believed were trying to assassinate him.  He fled to the isle of Capri, where he spent the last 11 years of his reign. He ruled for 23 years (14 A.D.-37 A.D.).  The reign of the next Emperor, [[Caligula]], is poorly documented; surviving accounts are universally hostile, to the point of caricature. He was assasinated by the Praetorian Guard in the year 41 A.D. The next Emperor was Cladius, who had physical defects and was despised for his "weakness."  According to Roman historians, Cladius was hiding behind a curtain in the wake of Caligula's assasination.  Some Praetorian Guardsmen found him and proclaimed him Emperor.  Cladius was a just Emperor, and he appointed plebians to important offices. He annexed Britain in 44 A.D.  Cladius died under mysterious circumstances, supposedly killed by his wife, Aggripina, to advance her son Nero to emperor.  Cladius ruled from 41 A.D. to 54 A.D. (''to be continued'')
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With his enemies defeated, [[Augustus]] assumed almost absolute power, retaining only the pretense of the Republican form of government. His designated successor, [[Tiberius]], took power without bloodshed, establishing the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], which lasted until the death of [[Nero]] in [[69]]. The territorial expansion of what was now the [[Roman Empire]] continued, and the state remained secure, despite a series of emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt. Their rule was followed by the [[Flavian dynasty]].{{ref|suetonius}} During the reign of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]" ([[96]]&ndash;[[180]]), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural zenith. The state was secure from both internal and external threats, and the Empire prospered during the [[Pax Romana]] ("Roman Peace"). With the conquest of [[Dacia]] during the reign of [[Trajan]], the Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned 2.5 million square miles.{{ref|Atlas1}}
  
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===Downfall===
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The period between [[180]] and [[235]] was dominated by the [[Severan dynasty]], and saw several incompetent rulers, such as [[Elagabalus]]. This and the increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]. The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of [[Diocletian]], who in [[293]] divided the Empire into [[Tetrarchy|four parts]] ruled by two co-emperors. The various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. In [[330]], Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] moved the capital of the Roman Empire to [[Byzantium]], and the Empire was permanently divided into the eastern [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Western Roman Empire]] in [[364]].
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''See the book: [[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''
 
  
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According to [[Edward Gibbon]], the Roman Empire succumbed to [[barbarian]]{{ref|barbarian}} invasions because of a loss of civic virtue among its citizens. They had become lazy and soft, entrusting their duties to defend their Empire to barbarian [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. The ranks of barbarian armies became so thick and ingrained that they were able to easily overtake the Empire. Romans, Gibbon says, had become effeminate and were unwilling to live the military lifestyle.
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The Western Empire was constantly harassed by barbarian invasions, and the gradual [[decline of the Roman Empire]] continued over the centuries. In [[410]], the city of Rome itself was sacked, and in [[September 4]], [[476]], the Germanic chief [[Odoacer]] forced the last Roman emperor in the west, [[Romulus Augustus]], to abdicate. Having lasted for approximately 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the west came to an end.
  
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In addition, Gibbon implicated [[Christianity]] in the downfall of Rome. Christianity, he said, created a belief in another world and suggested that a better life existed after [[death]]. This fostered indifference among Roman citizens who believed they would live a better life once they died, thus sapping their desire to maintain and sacrifice for the Empire. Also, the rise of Christianity created an affiliation that was more important than the state, further diminishing desire to put the state's needs above one's own. This explanation is viewed with scepticism because the empire only disintegrated in the West, while in the East, the Empire continued as the [[Byzantine Empire]]. However, all agree that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire is a complex issue with no single cause.
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==Society==
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Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of [[Rome]], located on [[Seven hills of Rome|seven hills]]. The city had a vast number of [[monument|monumental]] [[structure]]s like the [[Colosseum]], the [[Forum of Trajan]] and the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]]. It had [[fountains]] with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of [[aqueducts]], [[Roman theatre (structure)|theater]]s, [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)]]s, [[thermae|bath complexes]] complete with [[libraries]] and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, [[residential]] [[architecture]] ranged from very modest [[house]]s to [[Roman_villa|country villas]], and in the [[capital city]] of Rome, there were [[imperial]] [[residence]]s on the elegant [[Palatine Hill]], from which the word "''palace''" is derived. The poor lived in the city center, packed into [[apartment]]s, which were almost like modern [[ghetto]]s.
  
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Modern historians have offered competing theories such as [[lead poisoning]] from leaden wine containers, [[plague|plagues]], political corruption, a non-productive urban culture, and transfer of military service to the barbarians and other frontiersmen for the fall of the western empire.
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The city of Rome was the largest urban center of that time, with a population well in excess of one million people, with some high-end estimates of 3.5 million and low-end estimates of 450,000. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron [[chariot]] wheels that [[Julius Caesar]] had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. Historical estimates indicate that around 30 percent of population under the jurisdiction of the ancient Rome lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a [[Roman Forum|forum]] and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome.
  
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:{{note|barbarian}} In the Roman Empire, the word ''barbarian'' meant ''anyone not a Roman citizen'', which was applied chiefly to northern European tribes outside of the influence of Roman culture.
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===Government===
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[[Image:Julius caesar.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Julius Caesar]]'s rise to power and assassination set the stage for [[Augustus]] to establish himself as the first ''[[imperator]]''.]]
  
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==Legacy==
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Initially, Rome was ruled by elected [[Roman Kingdom|kings]]. The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain; he may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (''[[imperium]]'') was likely absolute. He was also the head of the [[Roman religion|state religion]]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] acted as an advisory body for the King, the [[Curiate Assembly]] could pass laws suggested by the King, and the [[Comitia Calata]] was mainly an assembly of the people to bear witness to certain acts and hear proclamations.
  
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{{sect-stub}}
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The class struggles of the [[Roman Republic]] resulted in an unusual mixture of [[democracy]] and [[oligarchy]]. Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly.  Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the [[Roman Senate]] represented an oligarchic insitution, which acted as an advisory body.{{ref|Tuomisto2}} In the Republic, the Senate held great authority (''auctoritas''), but no actual legislative power (''[[imperium]]''). However, as the senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished citizens by [[censor]]s, who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found morally corrupt. Later, [[quaestor]]s were also made automatic members of the Senate.
  
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===Cultural and Linguistic Legacy===
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The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and only collected war taxes. Private citizens aspiring to high office largely paid for public works. In order to prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new [[magistrate]]s were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two [[consul]]s. In an emergency, a temporary [[Roman dictator|dictator]] could be appointed.{{ref|Tuomisto3}} Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the [[Roman Empire]].
  
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One of the most enduring legacies of Rome is linguistic: [[Romance languages]] that evolved from
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In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained: the [[Roman Emperor]] was portrayed as only a ''[[princeps]]'', or "first citizen", and the Senate retained a degree of influence. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly autocratic over time, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisors, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally-planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the [[decline of the Roman Empire]].
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[[Latin]] spoken in the [[Roman Empire]] are now spoken widely in [[Europe]] and [[Latin America]], such as [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Romanian language|Romanian]], amongst others. Although [[English language|English]] is a [[Germanic language]], many English words derive from [[Latin]] roots, either directly or through intermediary successor languages such as French. [[Latin]] remains the official language of [[Vatican City]] and is studied and understood by scholars around the world.  However, fluent speech in [[Latin]] is very rare in present day. This is mainly due to the differences between [[Latin]]'s reliance upon [[inflection]] of words and modern Romance languages' reliance upon [[syntax]], in addition to lack of use.
 
  
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===Successor States===
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The territory of the Empire was divided into [[Roman province|provinces]]. The number of provinces increased with time, both as new territories were conquered and as provinces were divided into smaller units to discourage rebellions by powerful local rulers.{{ref|Atlas2}} Initially, the provinces were divided into imperial and senatorial provinces, depending on which institution had the right to select the governor. During the [[Tetrarchy]], the provinces of the empire were divided into 12 [[diocese]]s, each headed by a ''[[praetor|praetor vicarius]]''. The civilian and military authority were separated, with civilian matters still administred by the governor, but with military command transferred to a ''[[dux]]''.
  
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After the fall of the city of Rome and the Western Empire the state continued its existence as the [[Byzantine Empire]], which is conventionally treated as a separate entity in history books. Also the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Russia]] have claimed the "Roman" legacy after the [[fall of Constantinople]] (See [[Third Rome]]).
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===Law===
  
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==Religion==
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The roots to the legal principles and practices of the ancient may be traced to the law of the [[twelve tables]] (from [[449 BC]]) to the [[Corpus Iuris Civilis | codification]]  of Emperor [[Justinian I]] (around [[530]]). the Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes became the basis of legal principles and practices in the [[Byzantine Empire]], and in continental [[Western Europe]], and continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the [[18th century]].
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[[Image:Jupiter-God.jpg|frame|A sculpture of the King of gods, [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]]]
 
  
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''Main articles: '''[[Roman mythology]]''', '''[[Roman religion]]'''''
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The major divisions of the law of the ancient Rome consisted of  ''Ius Civile'', ''Ius Gentium'', and ''Ius Naturale''. The ''Ius Civile'' ("Citizen law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens and the [[Praetor#Praetor_Urbanus|''Praetores Urbani'']] (''sg. Praetor Urbanus'') were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The ''Ius Gentium'' ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The [[Praetor#Praetor_Peregrinus|''Praetores Peregrini'']] ('' sg. Praetor Peregrinus'') were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings.
  
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===Early Roman Religion===
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===Economy===
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[[Image:Maximinus_denarius.jpg|left|frame|A [[Roman currency|Roman]] [[denarius]], a standardized [[silver]] coin.]]
  
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Archaic Roman "mythology", at least concerning the gods, was made up not of narratives, but rather of interlocking and complex interrelations between and among gods and humans. Gods were not personified, unlike in [[Ancient Greece]]. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had their own [[Genius (mythology)|genius]] (such as "[[Lares Familiares]]" - the family guardian spirits). Therefore the early Roman cult could be described as [[polydemonism]] instead of [[polytheism]].
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Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources available. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on [[agriculture]] and [[trade]]. Agricultural [[free trade]] changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the [[yeoman]] farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price: the [[annexation]] of [[Egypt]], [[Sicily]] and [[Tunisia]] in [[North Africa]] provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, [[olive oil]] and [[wine]] were Rome's main [[export]]s. Two-tier [[crop rotation]] was practiced, but farm productivity was overall low, around 1 ton per [[hectare]]. [[Industry|Industrial]] and [[manufacturing]] activities were relatively minimal, the largest such activity being the [[mining]] and [[quarrying]] of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the monuments of that period.
  
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The Romans distinguished two classes of gods, the ''di indigetes'' and the ''de novensides'' or ''novensiles.'' The ''indigetes'' were the original gods of the Roman state (see [[List of Di Indigetes]]). The ''novensides'' were later divinities whose cults were introduced to the city in the historical period, usually in response to a specific crisis or need.  
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The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labour, but foreign wars and conquests made [[slavery in antiquity|slaves]] increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labour for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of Rome's population at this time. Only in the later Roman Empire did hired labour became more economical than slave ownership.
  
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At the head of the earliest [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] were the triad [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Mars (god)|Mars]], and [[Quirinus]]. Their priests, or [[flamen]]s, were senior to others. Later this triad was supplanted by the [[Capitoline Triad]], [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Juno]], and [[Minerva]].
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Although [[barter]] was common in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed [[coinage]] system, with [[brass]], [[bronze]], and [[precious metal]] coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond&mdash;some have even been discovered in [[India]]. Before the [[3rd century BC]], copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (''[[as (coin)|as]]'') had a face value of one [[Pound (weight)#Origins|Roman pound]] of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its [[intrinsic value]] as metal; after [[Nero]] began debasing the silver [[denarius]], its [[legal tender|legal]] value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.
  
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During the [[Roman republic]] there was a strict system of priestly offices, of which the [[Pontifex maximus]] was the most important. [[Flamen]]s took care of the cults of various gods, while [[augur]]s were trusted with taking the [[auspices]]. The [[rex sacrorum]], or "sacrificial king" took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings.
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[[Horse]]s were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow, for mass trade on the [[Roman road]]s, which connected military posts rather than markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of [[commodity|commodities]] between Roman regions until the rise of [[Roman commerce#Sea routes|Roman maritime trade]] in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from [[Gades]] to [[Alexandria]] via [[Ostia]], spanning the entire length of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].{{ref|Atlas3}} Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.
  
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===Late republic and the empire===
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===Class structure===
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[[Image:Toga Illustration.png|frame|right|A Roman clad in a [[toga]], the distinctive garb of Ancient Rome.]]
  
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As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became associated with Greek gods. Therefore [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] was perceived to be the same deity as [[Zeus]]. [[Mars (god)|Mars]] was associated with [[Ares]] and [[Poseidon|Neptune]] with [[Poseidon]]. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and myth of these Greek gods.
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Roman society was strictly [[social hierarchy|hierarchical]], with [[slavery in antiquity|slaves]] (''servi'') at the bottom, [[freedman|freedmen]] (''liberti'') above them, and free-born citizens at the top. The free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest division was between the [[patrician]]s, who could trace their ancestry to the founding of the city, and the [[plebs|plebeians]], who could not. This became less important in the late Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered the ranks of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], and some patrician families fell on hard times. In its place, the Roman elite were recognized for either their economic status&mdash;the [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrians]] (''equites''), wealthy businessmen&mdash;or their political status&mdash;the [[noble]]s (''nobiles''), who dominated the Senate. To be a noble, an individual needed to have a [[consul]] as an ancestor; men like [[Marius]] and [[Cicero]], who were the first of their families to rise to the consulship, were given the title ''[[novus homo]]'' ("new man").
  
−
The transference of the anthropomorphic qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the [[1st century BC]] the religious importance of the old priestly offices declined rapidly, though their civic importance and political influence remained. Roman religion in the empire tended more and more to center on the imperial house, and several emperors were deified after their deaths.
+
Allied foreign cities were often given the [[Latin Right]], an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (''peregrini''), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the [[Social War]] of [[91 BC|91]]&ndash;[[88 BC]], and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by [[Caracalla]] in [[212]].
  
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===Spread of Eastern Religions===
+
===Family===
 +
The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Household included the head of the household (''[[pater familias|paterfamilias]]''), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The head of the household had great power (''patria potestas'', "father's power") over those living with him: He could force marriage and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and possibly even had the right to kill family members, although this has been recently disputed in academic circles.
  
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Under the empire, numerous foreign cults grew popular, such as the worship of the Egyptian [[Isis]] and the [[Iran|Persian]] [[Mithras]]. Also, starting from the second century, [[Christianity]] began to spread in the Empire. Despite persecutions, [[Christianity]] steadily gained converts. It became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. All cults save Christianity were prohibited in AD [[391]] by an edict of Emperor [[Theodosius I]].
+
''Patria potestas'' even extended over adult sons with their own households: A man was not considered a ''paterfamilias'' while his own father lived. A daughter, when she married, usually fell under the authority of the ''paterfamilias'' of her husband's household, although this was not always the case, as she could choose to continue recognising her father's family as her true family. However, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had would belong to her husband's family.
  
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==Society==
+
Groups of related households formed a family ([[gens]]). Families were based on blood ties (or adoption), but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the [[Roman Republic]], some powerful families, or ''[[Gens|Gentes Maiores]]'', came to dominate political life.
  
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===Classes===
+
[[Ancient Roman marriage]] was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties. {{ref|Johnston}}
  
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The free citizens of Rome were divided into two classes: [[patrician]]s and [[Plebs|plebeians]]. The patricians were the dominant class. Originally, only they could be elected for office. Intermarrying between the classes was forbidden and the patrician title could only be inherited, not earned. During the [[Roman Republic]], a series of struggles led to plebeians gaining equal, or nearly equal, rights.
+
===Education===
  
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Late in the [[Roman Republic|republic]], the distinction between patricians and plebeians started to lose its meaning. A new ruling class, the [[optimates]], were those families, patrician or plebeian, who had produced a [[consul]]. During the [[Roman Empire|empire]], the class division fell into disuse and was largely forgotten.
+
The goal of education in Rome was to make the students effective speakers. School started on March 24 each year. Every school day started in the early morning and continued throughout the afternoon. At first, boys were taught to read and write by their father, or by educated slaves, usually of Greek origin. Village schools were also established.  Later, around [[200 BC]], boys and some girls were sent to schools outside the home around age 6. Basic Roman education included reading, writing, and counting, and their materials consisted of [[scroll (parchment)|scrolls]] and books. At age 13, students learned about [[Greek language|Greek]] and Roman literature and grammar in school. At age 16, some students went on to [[rhetoric]] school. Poorer people did not go to school, but were usually taught by their parents because school was not free.
  
−
In the early Republic citizens were also divided into classes according to the armament they could afford to buy for themselves for military service. The richest class was the [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrians]] or knights, who could afford a war horse. There were both patrician and plebeian equestrians. Later in the Republic fixed amounts of wealth replaced military equipment as the basis of classification. Higher classes had more political power and prestige than lower classes. This system also lost its meaning after the abolition of the Republic.
+
===Language===
 +
[[Image:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this [[Latin]] [[Bible]] from AD 1407.]]
  
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===Family===
+
The native language of the Romans was [[Latin]], an [[Italic languages|Italic language]] that relies little on [[word order in Latin|word order]], conveying meaning through a system of [[affix]]es attached to [[word stem]]s. Its alphabet, the [[Latin alphabet]], is ultimately based on the [[Greek alphabet]]. Although surviving [[Latin literature]] consists almost entirely of [[Classical Latin]], an artificial and highly stylized and polished [[literary language]] from the [[1st century BC]], the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.
  
−
The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Household included the head of the household (paterfamilias), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes slaves and servants were also part of the household. Romans certainly did not see the family as those of the suburban West do today - their family was more far reaching in definition. The head of the household had great power over those living with him: could force marriage and divorce, sell his children into slavery and possibly even had the right to kill family members (this has been recently disputed in academic circles). This particular manifestation of familial power was called "patria potestas", literally "fathers power". One interesting point of note is that wives did not always count as family, as they could choose to continue recognising their father's family as their true family, and not necessarily adopt their husband's family.
+
While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, [[Greek language|Greek]] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the [[Byzantine Empire]], Greek eventually supplanted Latin as both the written and spoken language. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and [[dialect]]ized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct [[Romance language]]s.
  
−
Groups of related households formed a family ([[gens]]). Families were based on blood ties (or adoption), but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the [[Roman Republic]] some powerful families, or [[Gens|Gentes Maiores]] came to dominate political life.
+
During the European [[Middle Ages]] and [[Early Modern period]], Latin maintained a role as western Europe's ''[[lingua franca]]'', an international language of [[academia]] and [[diplomacy]].  
 +
Eventually supplanted in this respect by [[French language|French]] in the [[19th century]] and [[English language|English]] in the [[20th century]], Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology. It has been estimated that 80% of all scholarly English words derive directly or indirectly from Latin.  
  
−
===Weddings===
+
Although Latin is an [[extinct language]] with very few remaining fluent speakers, [[Ecclesiastical Latin]] remains the traditional language of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the official language of [[Vatican City]].
−
Upper class Roman fathers usually began seeking [[husband]]s for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride; he might be two years older or three times her age. She was expected to give little or no objection in the bargaining between families - although there is proof that some daughters had more say in their choice of husbands than we might expect (Cicero's daughter and wife planned the daughter's husband, all the time assuming that Cicero would just say yes - and he did). While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower class women - plebeians, freedwomen etc - often married in their late teens or early twenties. Marriage for them was not about economic and political gain in the cut throat world of Roman politics, so it was not as urgent.
 
  
−
Friends and family attended an engagement ceremony before the [[wedding]]. Here the father was asked whether he promised to give his daughter ("Spondesne?") and he was expected to say he did ("Spondeo"). The bride-to-be then received financial gifts including a [[Wedding ring|ring]] to wear on her [[middle finger]], which many believed contained a [[nerve]] that ran straight to the [[heart]].
+
===Art, literature and music===
 +
[[Image:Cato.jpeg|thumb|200px|Roman sculpture was at its most original in the production of strongly characterized [[portraits]] such as this bust of [[Cato the Elder]].]]
  
−
===Baths===
+
Most early Roman painting styles show [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.
−
{{main|Thermae}}
 
−
Most Romans visited public or private [[Roman_baths|baths]] daily, not just to get clean but for social reasons as well. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the [[apodyterium]] or changing room, Romans would proceed to the [[tepidarium]] or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium&#8217;s main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the [[caldarium]] or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees [[Celsius]] (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the [[labrum]]. The last room was the [[frigidarium]] or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium.
 
  
−
==Economy==
+
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
  
−
[[Image:Maximinus_denarius.jpg|right|frame|A [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[denarius]], a standardized [[silver]] coin ('''See also''' [[Roman currency]]).]]
+
===Games and activities===
−
{{Main|Roman commerce}}
 
−
 
−
The early economy was largely dependent on slave labour, and slaves constituted around 20 percent of the population. A slave&#8217;s [[price]] was dependent on their skills, and a slave trained in [[medicine]] was equivalent to 50 [[agricultural]] slaves. In the later period, hired labour became more economical than slave ownership.
 
  
−
=== Finance ===
+
The ancient city of Rome had a place called Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the River Tiber. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements.
−
{{Main|Roman finance}}
 
−
Although [[barter]] was common (and often used in [[tax]] collection) the [[monetary]] system was highly developed, with [[brass]], [[bronze]], and [[precious metal]] coins in circulation throughout the empire and beyond (some have been discovered in [[India]]).  
 
  
−
Before the 3rd Century BC, copper was traded by weight (in unmarked lumps) across Central Italy. The original copper coins ([[as (coin)|As]]) had a face value of a [[Pound#Origins|Roman pound]] of copper, but weighed less (according to [[Mommsen]] early coins weighed at most 312 g, but late second century BC As contained only 19 g of copper). <!--[http://www.ces.org.za/docs/what%20is%20money.htm according to Innes] - This is sometimes explained as [[inflation]]; the As was divided into 12 ounces and Innes says some weighed less than half an ounce. Naturally, most coins were smaller denominations (mostly 1/6 of an As). The plural of As is Asses, but saying that the Roman asses contained copper will distract.--> Hence, Roman [[money]]'s utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its [[intrinsic value]] as [[metal]]; after [[Nero]] began debasing the [[silver]] Denarii, Mommsen estimated its [[legal tender|legal]] value at one third greater than intrinsic (it was an offence to refuse payment in Denarii).
+
In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Women did not participate in these activities. Ball-playing was a popular sport, and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field hockey, catch, and some form of Soccer.
  
−
=== Trade ===  
+
===Religion===
 +
[[Image:Jupiter Tonans.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Iuppiter Tonans'' ("[[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] the Thunderer"), a sculpture of the supreme Roman deity.]]
  
−
[[Horse]]s were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow, for mass [[trade]] on the [[roman road]]s, which connected military posts (rather than markets) and were rarely designed for wheels. Therefore, there was little transport of [[commodity|commodities]] between Roman regions, until the rise of [[Roman mercantilism#Sea routes|Roman maritime trade]] in the [[second century BC]]. The agricultural [[free trade]] changed the [[Italy|Italian]] landscape, and by the first century BC vast [[grape]] and [[olive]] estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers who were unable to match the [[import]]ed [[cereal|grain]] price. The volume of trade was so great that a [[Monte Testaccio|single mound]] of cargo [[Amphorae|pottery vessel]] fragments is over forty [[metres]] high and a [[kilometre]] around.  
+
Archaic [[Roman mythology]], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in [[Greek mythology]], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely-defined sacred spirits called ''[[numina]]''. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own ''[[genius (mythology)|genius]]'', or guardian spirit. During the [[Roman Republic]], [[Roman religion]] was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, of which the [[Pontifex Maximus]] was the most important. [[Flamen]]s took care of the cults of various gods, while [[augur]]s were trusted with taking the [[auspice]]s. The [[sacred king]] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings.
  
−
Link: [http://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_11.html Sources of income and means of living] from [[Harold Whetstone Johnston|Johnston's]] ''The Private Life of the Romans''.
+
As contact with the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] was perceived to be the same deity as [[Zeus]], [[Mars (god)|Mars]] became associated with [[Ares]], and Neptune with [[Poseidon]]. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. The transferral of [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the [[1st century BC]], the religious importance of the old priestly offices declined rapidly, though their civic importance and political influence remained. Roman religion in the empire tended more and more to center on the imperial house, and several emperors were deified after their deaths.
  
−
==Education==
+
Under the empire, numerous foreign cults grew popular, such as the worship of the Egyptian [[Isis]] and the [[Iran|Persian]] [[Mithras]]. Beginning in the 2nd century, [[Christianity]] began to spread in the Empire, despite initial persecution. It became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], and all religions except Christianity were prohibited in [[391]] by an edict of Emperor [[Theodosius I]].
−
The goal of education in Rome was to make the students effective speakers. School started on March 24<sup>th</sup> each year. Every school day started in early morning and continued throughout the afternoon. Originally, boys were taught to read and write by their father, assuming he knew how. Later, around [[200 BC]], boys and some girls were sent to schools outside the home around age 6. Basic Roman education included reading, writing, and counting, and their materials consisted of [[scroll (parchment)|scrolls]] and books. At age 13, students learned about [[Greek language|Greek]] and Roman literature and grammar in school. At age 16, some students went on to [[rhetoric]] school. Poorer people did not go to school, but were usually taught by their parents because school was not free.
 
  
−
==Arts and literature==
+
==Technology==
−
Rome produced many great authors and playwrights.  A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The [[rhetoric]]al works of [[Cicero]], in particular, were popular.  Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of [[Terence]], a freed Roman slave captured during the [[First Punic War]].
+
[[image:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|framed|The [[Roman abacus]], the first portable calculating device, helped speed up the use of [[Roman arithmetic]].]]
  
−
==Government==
+
Ancient Rome boasted the most impressive technological feats of its day, utilizing many advancements that would be lost in the [[Middle Ages]] and not be rivaled again until the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]]. However, though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies, the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive. The development of new ideas was rarely encouraged; Roman society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a large household the ideal, and [[Roman law]] made no provisions for [[intellectual property]] or the promotion of invention. The concept of "scientists" and "engineers" did not yet exist, and advancements were often divided based on craft, with groups of [[artisan]]s jealously guarding new technologies as [[trade secret]]s. Nevertheless, a number of vital technological breakthroughs were spread and thoroughly utilized by Rome, contributing to an enormous degree to Rome's dominance and lasting influence in Europe.
 +
<!--Add paragraphs on Roman calendar, numerals and counting system, etc. here. Possibly some info on Roman boats, though Rome's navy can be addressed under "Military". -->
  
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===Roman Kingdom===
+
===Engineering and architecture===
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{{Seealso|List of Kings of Rome}}
+
[[Image:Pont du gard.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Pont du Gard]] in [[France]] is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. [[19 BC]]. It is one of France's top tourist attractions and a [[World Heritage Site]].]]
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{{sect-stub}}
+
{{main|Roman engineering|Roman architecture}}
  
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===Roman Republic===
+
Roman engineering constituted a large portion of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such as the [[Colosseum]], [[Pont du Gard]], and [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.
−
{{main|Roman Republic}}
 
  
−
The class struggles of the [[Roman Republic]] resulted in a mixture of [[democracy]] and [[oligarchy]]. Democratic institutions included the various [[Roman assemblies|popular assemblies]], which elected magistrates and made some other important decisions. The [[Roman Senate|senate]] represented oligarchy.
+
The Romans were particularly renowned for [[Roman architecture|their architecture]], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "[[Classical architecture]]". However, for the course of the Roman Republic, Roman architecture remained stylistically almost identical to [[architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek architecture]]. Although there were many differences between Roman and Greek building types, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new [[classical order|orders]] of columns, [[composite order|composite]] and [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], and from the [[dome]], which was derived from the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] [[arch]], Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Roman Republic.
  
−
The republic had no fixed bureaucracy and only collected war taxes. Private citizens aspiring to high office largely paid for public works. In order to prevent any citizen gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions the highest authority was held by two [[consul]]s. In an emergency a temporary [[Roman dictator|dictator]] could be appointed.
+
It was at this time, in the [[1st century BC]], that Romans developed [[concrete]], a powerful [[cement]] derived from [[pozzolana]] which soon supplanted [[marble]] as the chief Roman building material and allowed for numerous daring architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, [[Vitruvius]] wrote ''[[De architectura]]'', possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late [[1st century]], Rome also began to make use of [[glassblowing]] soon after its invention in [[Syria]], and [[mosaic]]s took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]]'s campaigns in Greece.
  
−
During the Republic the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end it proved inefficient for controlling the vastly expanded empire. This was one of the reasons for the birth of the [[Roman Empire]].
+
[[Image:RomaViaAppiaAntica03.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Appian Way]] (''Via Appia''), a road connecting the city of [[Rome]] to the southern parts of [[Italy]], remains usable even today.]]
  
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===Roman Empire===
+
Concrete made possible the paved, durable [[Roman road]]s, many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Roman Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. Originally constructed for military purposes, to allow [[Roman legion]]s to be rapidly deployed, these highways had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads&mdash;the origin of the phrase "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervials along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a system of horse relays for couriers that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours.
  
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{{sect-stub}}
+
The Romans constructed numerous [[aqueduct]]s to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to assist in [[Roman agriculture|their agriculture]]. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts with a combined length of 350 km (260 miles).{{ref|frontinus}} Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Powered entirely by [[gravity]], the aqueducts transported very large amounts of water with an efficiency that remained unsurpassed for two thousand years. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 miles had to be crossed, [[inverted siphon]]s were used to force water uphill.{{ref|waterhistory}}
  
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{{main|Roman Empire}}
+
The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public [[bathing|baths]], called ''[[thermae]]'', which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have [[flush toilet]]s and [[domestic water system|indoor plumbing]], and a complex [[sewer]] system, the [[Cloaca Maxima]], was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the River [[Tiber]]. However, some historians have speculated that the use of lead pipes in sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread [[lead poisoning]] which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the [[decline of the Roman Empire|fall of Rome]].
−
 
 
−
====Provinces and intermediate level ====
 
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''See also: [[Pretorian Prefectures]], [[Diocese]]s, [[Roman province]]s''
 
−
 
 
−
====Local administration====
 
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''See also: [[Municipia]], [[Coloniae]]''
 
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===Ruling Bodies===
 
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{{sect-stub}}
 
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====Senate====
 
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{{main|Roman Senate}}
 
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The [[Roman Senate]] was an advisory body consisting of some of the most influential citizens. It held great authority (''auctoritas'' in Latin), but no actual legislative power (''[[imperium]]''). In the [[Roman Republic]] the [[Censor]]s chose new members for the Senate among the most accomplished citizens. They could also remove a senator from his office if he was found morally corrupt. Later, membership in the Senate followed from the election as a [[Quaestor]]. In the [[Roman Empire]] the Emperor appointed senators, although for much of the time of the Empire elections were still held, and the results followed. However, this veil of democracy, created by [[Augustus]] at the beginning of the transformation from Republic to Empire, was deceiving. In reality, no one disliked by the Emperor could stand. The lists for elections were carefully monitored by the Emperor's civil service, and pruned as necessary. Furthermore, when there was a competitive election, the Emperor would issue his opinion on who should be elected. Needless to say that the smiled upon would always get elected.
 
  
 
==Military==
 
==Military==
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{{main|Military history of the Roman Empire}}
+
[[Image:Cornicen on Trajan's column.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's column in the Victoria and Albert museum, London.]]
−
''See also: [[Roman legion]] and [[Roman Triumph]]''
 
  
−
The early Roman army was, like those of other contemporary city-states, a citizen force where the bulk of the troops fought as [[hoplite]]s. The soldiers were required to supply their own arms and would return to civilian life once their service was ended.
+
The early Roman army was, like those of other contemporary city-states, a citizen force in which the bulk of the troops fought as [[hoplite]]s. The soldiers were required to supply their own arms and they returned to civilian life once their service was ended.
  
 
The first of the great army reformers, [[Camillus]], reorganized the army to adopt [[maniple (military unit)|manipular]] tactics and divided the infantry into three lines: ''[[hastati]]'', ''[[principes]]'' and ''[[triarii]]''.
 
The first of the great army reformers, [[Camillus]], reorganized the army to adopt [[maniple (military unit)|manipular]] tactics and divided the infantry into three lines: ''[[hastati]]'', ''[[principes]]'' and ''[[triarii]]''.
  
−
The middle class smallholders had traditionally been the backbone of the Roman army but, by the end of the [[2nd century BC]], the self-owning farmer had largely disappeared as a social class. Faced with acute manpower problems, [[Gaius Marius]] transformed the army into a fully professional force and accepted recruits from the lower classes.
+
The middle class smallholders had traditionally been the backbone of the Roman army, but by the end of the [[2nd century BCE]], the self-owning farmer had largely disappeared as a social class. Faced with acute manpower problems, [[Gaius Marius]] transformed the army into a fully professional force and accepted recruits from the lower classes.  
  
−
The last army reorganization came when Emperor [[Constantine I]] divided the army into a static defense force and a mobile field army. During the Late Empire, Rome also became increasingly dependent upon allied contingents, ''[[foederati]]''.
+
The [[Roman legion]] was one of the strongest aspects of the Roman army. The [[Roman triumph]] was a civic ceremony and religious rite held to publicly honor a military commander.
  
−
Drugs were very prevalent in the Roman Empire. Emperor Augustus frequently smoked opiates, believing that they improved his decision making skills.
+
The last army reorganization came when Emperor [[Constantine I]] divided the army into a static defense force and a mobile field army. During the Late Empire, Rome also became increasingly dependent on allied contingents, ''[[foederati]]''.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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*[[Culture of Ancient Rome]]
+
 
 
*[[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
 
*[[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
 
*[[Timeline of Ancient Rome]]
 
*[[Timeline of Ancient Rome]]
 +
*[[Roman agriculture]]
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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*[http://www.crystalinks.com/rome.html Ancient Rome info]
 
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/rome.html Ancient Rome info]
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*[http://www.exovedate.com/ancient_timeline_one.html Ancient Roman timeline]
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*[http://www.exovedate.com/ancient_timeline_one.html Ancient Roman History Timeline]
 
*[http://www.historylink101.com/ancient_rome.htm Ancient Rome pictures, art, and info]
 
*[http://www.historylink101.com/ancient_rome.htm Ancient Rome pictures, art, and info]
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*[http://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_intro.html ''The Private Life of the Romans'' by [[Harold Whetstone Johnston]]]
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[[Category:Ancient Rome|*]]
 

Latest revision as of 08:03, 1 October 2009

The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed.


Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of the city-state of Rome, founded on the Italian peninsula in the 8th century BCE. During its twelve-century existence, the Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to a vast empire. It came to dominate Western Europe and the entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest and assimilation, but eventually succumbed to barbarian invasions in the 5th century, marking the decline of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Middle Ages.

The Roman civilization is often grouped into "classical antiquity" with ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed heavily to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today.

History

Main Article History of Rome and Timeline of ancient Rome

Monarchy

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.

Main Article Roman Kingdom

The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffic and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably founded sometime in the 9th century BC by members of two central Italian tribes, the Latins and the Sabines, on the Palatine and Quirinal Hills. The Etruscans, who had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.

In Roman legend, Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BC by twins descendents of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. Romulus, whose name inspired the name Rome, killed Remus in a quarrel over where their new city would be located, and became the first of seven Kings of Rome.[1]

Republic

Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the Roman military.

The Roman Republic was established around 510 BC, according to later writers such as Livy, when the last of the seven king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed, and a system based on annually-elected magistrates was established. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised executive authority, but had to contend with the Senate, which grew in size and power with the establishment of the Republic. The magistracies were originally restricted to the elite patricians, but were later opened to common people, or plebs.[2]

The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 282 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, and established stable control over the region.[3] In the second half of the 3rd century BC, Rome clashed with Carthage in the first two Punic wars. These wars resulted in Rome's first overseas conquests, of Sicily and Hispania, and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power. After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the masters of the Mediterranean Sea.[4]

But foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces' expense, but soldiers, mostly small farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the increased reliance on foreign slaves reduced the availablility of paid work. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important land reforms. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate by violence. The denial of Roman citizenship to allied Italian cities led to the Social War of 91-88 BC. The military reforms of Marius resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general could hold the city and Senate ransom. This culminated in Sulla's brutal dictatorship of 81-79 BC. [5]

In the mid-1st century BC, three men, Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, formed a secret pact—the First Triumvirate—to control the Republic. After Caesar's conquest of Gaul, a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made dictator for life.[6] In 42 BC, Caesar was assassinated by senators fearing that Caesar sought to restore the monarchy, and a Second Triumvirate, consisting of Caesar's designated heir, Augustus, and his former supporters, Mark Antony and Lepidus, took power. However, this alliance too soon descended into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was exiled, and when Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, he became the undisputed ruler of Rome. [7]

Empire

The Roman Empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan.

With his enemies defeated, Augustus assumed almost absolute power, retaining only the pretense of the Republican form of government. His designated successor, Tiberius, took power without bloodshed, establishing the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted until the death of Nero in 69. The territorial expansion of what was now the Roman Empire continued, and the state remained secure, despite a series of emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt. Their rule was followed by the Flavian dynasty.[8] During the reign of the "Five Good Emperors" (96–180), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural zenith. The state was secure from both internal and external threats, and the Empire prospered during the Pax Romana ("Roman Peace"). With the conquest of Dacia during the reign of Trajan, the Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; Rome's dominion now spanned 2.5 million square miles.[9]

The period between 180 and 235 was dominated by the Severan dynasty, and saw several incompetent rulers, such as Elagabalus. This and the increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of Diocletian, who in 293 divided the Empire into four parts ruled by two co-emperors. The various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. In 330, Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, and the Empire was permanently divided into the eastern Byzantine Empire and the Western Roman Empire in 364.

The Western Empire was constantly harassed by barbarian invasions, and the gradual decline of the Roman Empire continued over the centuries. In 410, the city of Rome itself was sacked, and in September 4, 476, the Germanic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustus, to abdicate. Having lasted for approximately 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the west came to an end.

Society

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had fountains with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts, theaters, gymnasium (ancient Greece)s, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The poor lived in the city center, packed into apartments, which were almost like modern ghettos.

The city of Rome was the largest urban center of that time, with a population well in excess of one million people, with some high-end estimates of 3.5 million and low-end estimates of 450,000. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. Historical estimates indicate that around 30 percent of population under the jurisdiction of the ancient Rome lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a forum and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome.

Government

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Julius Caesar's rise to power and assassination set the stage for Augustus to establish himself as the first imperator.

Initially, Rome was ruled by elected kings. The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain; he may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king's authority (imperium) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the state religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate acted as an advisory body for the King, the Curiate Assembly could pass laws suggested by the King, and the Comitia Calata was mainly an assembly of the people to bear witness to certain acts and hear proclamations.

The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly. Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic insitution, which acted as an advisory body.[10] In the Republic, the Senate held great authority (auctoritas), but no actual legislative power (imperium). However, as the senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished citizens by censors, who could also remove a senator from his office if he was found morally corrupt. Later, quaestors were also made automatic members of the Senate.

The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and only collected war taxes. Private citizens aspiring to high office largely paid for public works. In order to prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appointed.[11] Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.

In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained: the Roman Emperor was portrayed as only a princeps, or "first citizen", and the Senate retained a degree of influence. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly autocratic over time, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisors, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally-planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire.

The territory of the Empire was divided into provinces. The number of provinces increased with time, both as new territories were conquered and as provinces were divided into smaller units to discourage rebellions by powerful local rulers.[12] Initially, the provinces were divided into imperial and senatorial provinces, depending on which institution had the right to select the governor. During the Tetrarchy, the provinces of the empire were divided into 12 dioceses, each headed by a praetor vicarius. The civilian and military authority were separated, with civilian matters still administred by the governor, but with military command transferred to a dux.

Law

The roots to the legal principles and practices of the ancient may be traced to the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the codification of Emperor Justinian I (around 530). the Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes became the basis of legal principles and practices in the Byzantine Empire, and in continental Western Europe, and continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 18th century.

The major divisions of the law of the ancient Rome consisted of Ius Civile, Ius Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile ("Citizen law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens and the Praetores Urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The Praetores Peregrini ( sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. Ius naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all beings.

Economy

A Roman denarius, a standardized silver coin.

Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources available. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on agriculture and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price: the annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Rome's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was overall low, around 1 ton per hectare. Industrial and manufacturing activities were relatively minimal, the largest such activity being the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the monuments of that period.

The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labour, but foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labour for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of Rome's population at this time. Only in the later Roman Empire did hired labour became more economical than slave ownership.

Although barter was common in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal; after Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.

Horses were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow, for mass trade on the Roman roads, which connected military posts rather than markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of commodities between Roman regions until the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean.[13] Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.

Class structure

A Roman clad in a toga, the distinctive garb of Ancient Rome.

Roman society was strictly hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens at the top. The free citizens were also divided by class. The broadest division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the late Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered the ranks of the Senate, and some patrician families fell on hard times. In its place, the Roman elite were recognized for either their economic status—the equestrians (equites), wealthy businessmen—or their political status—the nobles (nobiles), who dominated the Senate. To be a noble, an individual needed to have a consul as an ancestor; men like Marius and Cicero, who were the first of their families to rise to the consulship, were given the title novus homo ("new man").

Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212.

Family

The basic units of Roman society were households and families. Household included the head of the household (paterfamilias), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The head of the household had great power (patria potestas, "father's power") over those living with him: He could force marriage and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and possibly even had the right to kill family members, although this has been recently disputed in academic circles.

Patria potestas even extended over adult sons with their own households: A man was not considered a paterfamilias while his own father lived. A daughter, when she married, usually fell under the authority of the paterfamilias of her husband's household, although this was not always the case, as she could choose to continue recognising her father's family as her true family. However, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had would belong to her husband's family.

Groups of related households formed a family (gens). Families were based on blood ties (or adoption), but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life.

Ancient Roman marriage was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties. [14]

Education

The goal of education in Rome was to make the students effective speakers. School started on March 24 each year. Every school day started in the early morning and continued throughout the afternoon. At first, boys were taught to read and write by their father, or by educated slaves, usually of Greek origin. Village schools were also established. Later, around 200 BC, boys and some girls were sent to schools outside the home around age 6. Basic Roman education included reading, writing, and counting, and their materials consisted of scrolls and books. At age 13, students learned about Greek and Roman literature and grammar in school. At age 16, some students went on to rhetoric school. Poorer people did not go to school, but were usually taught by their parents because school was not free.

Language

The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from AD 1407.

The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language that relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is ultimately based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.

While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire, Greek eventually supplanted Latin as both the written and spoken language. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages.

During the European Middle Ages and Early Modern period, Latin maintained a role as western Europe's lingua franca, an international language of academia and diplomacy. Eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th century, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology. It has been estimated that 80% of all scholarly English words derive directly or indirectly from Latin.

Although Latin is an extinct language with very few remaining fluent speakers, Ecclesiastical Latin remains the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church and the official language of Vatican City.

Art, literature and music

File:Cato.jpeg
Roman sculpture was at its most original in the production of strongly characterized portraits such as this bust of Cato the Elder.

Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world. Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.

Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.

Games and activities

The ancient city of Rome had a place called Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the River Tiber. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements.

In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Women did not participate in these activities. Ball-playing was a popular sport, and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field hockey, catch, and some form of Soccer.

Religion

Iuppiter Tonans ("Jupiter the Thunderer"), a sculpture of the supreme Roman deity.

Archaic Roman mythology, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personified, but were vaguely-defined sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or guardian spirit. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, of which the Pontifex Maximus was the most important. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings.

As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associated with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. The transferral of anthropomorphic qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans, brought about an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the 1st century BC, the religious importance of the old priestly offices declined rapidly, though their civic importance and political influence remained. Roman religion in the empire tended more and more to center on the imperial house, and several emperors were deified after their deaths.

Under the empire, numerous foreign cults grew popular, such as the worship of the Egyptian Isis and the Persian Mithras. Beginning in the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread in the Empire, despite initial persecution. It became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under Constantine I, and all religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 by an edict of Emperor Theodosius I.

Technology

The Roman abacus, the first portable calculating device, helped speed up the use of Roman arithmetic.

Ancient Rome boasted the most impressive technological feats of its day, utilizing many advancements that would be lost in the Middle Ages and not be rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. However, though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies, the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive. The development of new ideas was rarely encouraged; Roman society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a large household the ideal, and Roman law made no provisions for intellectual property or the promotion of invention. The concept of "scientists" and "engineers" did not yet exist, and advancements were often divided based on craft, with groups of artisans jealously guarding new technologies as trade secrets. Nevertheless, a number of vital technological breakthroughs were spread and thoroughly utilized by Rome, contributing to an enormous degree to Rome's dominance and lasting influence in Europe.

Engineering and architecture

Pont du Gard in France is a Roman aqueduct built in ca. 19 BC. It is one of France's top tourist attractions and a World Heritage Site.

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Roman engineering constituted a large portion of Rome's technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, aqueducts, baths, theaters and arenas. Many monuments, such as the Colosseum, Pont du Gard, and Pantheon, still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

The Romans were particularly renowned for their architecture, which is grouped with Greek traditions into "Classical architecture". However, for the course of the Roman Republic, Roman architecture remained stylistically almost identical to Greek architecture. Although there were many differences between Roman and Greek building types, Rome borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, which was derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Roman Republic.

It was at this time, in the 1st century BC, that Romans developed concrete, a powerful cement derived from pozzolana which soon supplanted marble as the chief Roman building material and allowed for numerous daring architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, Vitruvius wrote De architectura, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In the late 1st century, Rome also began to make use of glassblowing soon after its invention in Syria, and mosaics took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during Sulla's campaigns in Greece.

The Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.

Concrete made possible the paved, durable Roman roads, many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Roman Empire dramatically increased Rome's power and influence. Originally constructed for military purposes, to allow Roman legions to be rapidly deployed, these highways had enormous economic significance, solidifying Rome's role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the phrase "all roads lead to Rome". The Roman government maintained way stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervials along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a system of horse relays for couriers that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 km (500 miles) in 24 hours.

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to assist in their agriculture. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts with a combined length of 350 km (260 miles).[15] Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Powered entirely by gravity, the aqueducts transported very large amounts of water with an efficiency that remained unsurpassed for two thousand years. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 miles had to be crossed, inverted siphons were used to force water uphill.[16]

The Romans also made major advancements in sanitation. Romans were particularly famous for their public baths, called thermae, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plumbing, and a complex sewer system, the Cloaca Maxima, was used to drain the local marshes and carry waste into the River Tiber. However, some historians have speculated that the use of lead pipes in sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread lead poisoning which contributed to the decline in birth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome.

Military

Roman soldiers on the cast of Trajan's column in the Victoria and Albert museum, London.

The early Roman army was, like those of other contemporary city-states, a citizen force in which the bulk of the troops fought as hoplites. The soldiers were required to supply their own arms and they returned to civilian life once their service was ended.

The first of the great army reformers, Camillus, reorganized the army to adopt manipular tactics and divided the infantry into three lines: hastati, principes and triarii.

The middle class smallholders had traditionally been the backbone of the Roman army, but by the end of the 2nd century BCE, the self-owning farmer had largely disappeared as a social class. Faced with acute manpower problems, Gaius Marius transformed the army into a fully professional force and accepted recruits from the lower classes.

The Roman legion was one of the strongest aspects of the Roman army. The Roman triumph was a civic ceremony and religious rite held to publicly honor a military commander.

The last army reorganization came when Emperor Constantine I divided the army into a static defense force and a mobile field army. During the Late Empire, Rome also became increasingly dependent on allied contingents, foederati.

See also

External links

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